Miscellaneous Titles

The role of accents in English

The topic of teacher accents in the ESL classroom is much debated. I am sure most teachers can relate to a story or experience. In South Korea, like many Asian countries there is a strong focus on the ‘American English’. All listening tapes, dialogues, transcripts and texts use American linguistics and accents. Even the international TOEIC and TEFL tests for a long time were using American accents. As a New Zealand citizen being strongly advised to develop an American accent can be hard to comprehend.

Kachru 1986 writes: what actually happens is that language and power go together. American English is accepted for the power and superiority which America as a nation has acquired in the areas of science, technology, commerce, military affairs and politics’. I tend to agree and further more the United States still holds some influence over Korea, be it financially, militarily or trade. Perhaps this can partly explain the obsession with the use of American accents. Another reason could be that Korea established a role for the United States after the Korean war. A lot of culture, habits and dialogues were introduced to Korea. A further reason could be expansion of cable and satellite television which carry American programs. Here in Korea we are inundated with TV series, sitcoms, and comedy shows. 

So, what role does the accent play in the ESL classroom. Personally I don’t think there should be any role for an accent. The primary objective of an ESL teacher is to produce clear and precise sounds so the students can understand, learn and respond. We all know that English is a global language and that students will need to be exposed to numerous accents and cultures. We do not live in a monolingual word and as such we should not teach a monolingual world. Not every person will converse only with a citizen of the United States. Indeed, most of my middle and high school students have a desire to study, work and live in England. As do many Koreans.

A search of eslteacherboard.com has listed numerous articles regarding this topic. A teacher wrote that ‘accents are part a person’s origin, culture and a sort of identity or trademark’. It is an appropriate comment as it relates to both the teacher and the student. I have numerous students who have tried to emulate (as do most Koreans) the American accent and patterns of speech. What actually happens is that the students over pronounce or miss pronounce entirely and in fact have made their speech worse.. Common examples are party become pari and dirty becomes diry. Both t’s have been dropped entirely whereas the American pronounce the letter softly, almost as a faint d sound.

If Korea wishes to develop as a nation and it has high aims to do so, it must adopt a more open policy towards English. Korea is developing new trade partners and FTA’s and becoming a player in the global market. The use of English must be carefully incorporated otherwise effective communication will be lost. We have begun to witnessing changes but they are small and take time to filter through Korean society. An example is that the International TOEIC tests in Korea are now incorporating England and Canadian accents into the dialogues. However many public schools still require native North American accent.

Educating Korean citizens that there is more than one English speaking country in the world is a priority. Korea cannot continue to blindly ignore the obvious fact that possessing an American accent is not the means to success. If Korea truly wants to communicate internationally then it must realise that the more exposure to the varying English accents will bring greater reward.

My final thought is this. There are numerous job advertisements everywhere. Teach English in Korea. Anyone from the United States, the U.K. Canada Australia and New Zealand is welcome. Just possess a bachelor’s degree. Well, that is not entirely accurate. If you are from one of these countries you are welcome but only if you speak or willing to change to an American accent, which I have been asked to do many times. Korea must change their mentality that English is global and non American accents are perfectly understood around the world. 

The Combination of Cooperative Learning and Authentic Materials Promotes Speaking in Small Groups i

Nowadays, we live in a communicative society where people need to have many skills in order to become part of society and to integrate in it successfully. People need to know how to work as a team, since part of the requirements for many jobs is the ability to work together and share ideas. Cooperative learning is one of the major strategies of introducing these communicative skills to pupils of every level. The combination of cooperative learning, task-based learning, and the use of authentic materials can promote communication skills, where one of them is speaking. All of these components are widely used around the world with a tremendous success in EFL classes. 

Review of Literature Cooperative Learning

Various names have been given to the cooperative learning method of teaching and learning, and there are some distinctions among them. According to Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991) in ‘Collaborative Learning: Group Work and Study Teams’ there is cooperative learning, collaborative learning, collective learning, learning communities, peer teaching, peer learning, reciprocal learning, team learning, study circle, study groups, and work groups. Over all, there are three general types of groups: informal learning groups, formal learning groups, and study teams. In Davis’s (1993) study, the focus is on formal learning groups, which concentrate on completion of tasks such as an experiment, writing a report, or carrying out a project. These groups may complete their work in one single class session or more, and usually students work together until their task is completed and graded. (Davis 1993) Roger and Johnson (1994) in their book ‘An Overview of Cooperative Learning’ differentiate between having students work in a group and structuring groups of students to work cooperatively. Students who work together may talk freely with each other, but they do not work cooperatively. They explain that in order for a group to work cooperatively, it needs to have several elements. The first one is to have a positive interdependence where a student has two major responsibilities: To learn the assignment material, and to ensure that all group members do the same assignment material. (Roger and Johnson 1994) The second essential element of cooperative learning is individual accountability. This exists when an individual student is assessed and the results of this assessment contribute to his or her share of the group’s success. This element is important because it ensures that learning cooperatively strengthens the group members. Individual accountability is promoted by keeping the size of the group small, giving an individual test, and observing how the members of the group help each other. (Roger and Johnson 1994) The third element in cooperative learning is interpersonal and small group skills. In order to achieve these skills, students must know and support each other, communicate accurately, and resolve conflicts. (Johnson, 1990, 1991; Johnson & F. Johnson, 1991, qtd. in Roger and Johnson 1994). The fourth and the final element of cooperative learning is group processing. This process is comprised of describing whether the member’s actions were helpful or not, which action to take according to the performance of the group’s members. This process enables good working relationships, getting feedbacks, celebrating successes. (Roger and Johnson 1994)

Pedagogical Aspects of Group Work

Michael H. Long and Patricia Porter (1985) in their research ‘Group Work, Interlanguage Talk, and Second language Acquisition’ strongly emphasize the pedagogical arguments for the use of group work in the second language. They claim that group work increases the quantity of student talk, individualizes instruction, creates a positive and an affective climate in the classroom, and increases student motivation. The first argument is that the more dedication group work gets, the more opportunities students speak. This argument leads to the second argument, which emphasizes the fact that group work improves the quality of student talk. The face- to-face communication enables natural environment for conversations. The third argument is that group work helps individualize instruction according to the student’s age, cognitive/developmental stage, sex, attitude, motivation, learning experience, and they can obtain suitable material according to all of these parameters. The fourth argument is that group work promotes a positive and an affective climate. For shy or insecure students who rarely talk in front of the whole classroom, group work provides relatively intimate environment and usually more supportive atmosphere. 

Authentic Materials Martinez (2002) mentions in his study ‘Authentic Materials: An Overview’ the definition of authentic material according to Peacock (1997) as material that has been produced to fulfill some social purpose in the language community. Using authentic materials has several advantages. Brinton, Gebhard and Melvin discuss these advantages in the context of the benefit it gives students in the real world. The first advantage is that authentic materials and media reinforce for students the direct relationship between the language classroom and the outside world. The second advantage is that authentic materials can be seen as a way to contextualize the language by offering the students ways of exposure to the material through the content and meaning rather than the language itself. The third advantage is that it increases the motivation to learn in students and it increases the interest in the subject matter. As a result, the students become more confident when they work with authentic materials, and they increase their understanding in the practical side of this use in the real world. (Brinton, 1991 qtd. in Oura 2003; Gebhard, 1996; Melvin and Stout, 1987) 

The Communicative learning approach

The Communicative learning approach for language learning is based on a student lead learning principle. The method focuses more on allowing the student to learn in real life situations, rather than in a teacher-dictated traditional classroom setting. CLT is uses student based curriculums that are based on the needs of students. CLT focuses more on learning communication in the second language than on learning grammar and writing, although grammar and writing are still important. Students will often participate in group activities where other students can help them with understanding. Skills are also integrated into the lesson so that reading, writing, speaking and listening are all being developed at the same time.

English for a Special Purpose (ESP) and Total Physical Response (TPR) are both methods that can be used very effectively within CLT. ESP is generally very beneficial for adult students whose language needs are evident, as they are already in contexts such as a job where they need to know specific things in English. 

ESP has developed out of the school of thought that all teaching and instruction should be student based and specific to the needs and socio-cultural context which they belong to. ESP is used mostly with adult learners who are most aware of their English language needs. An example of an ESP class would be a class in business English that a company may sponsor for its workers in order for them to learn English, which they will need on the job. Many classes such as a business English class are becoming known as VESL (vocational English as a Second Language) or EOP (English for Occupational Purposes)in English speaking countries. 

The communicative aspect of language is exactly what adult students need, and content learning would provide the best results, because the student can leave class and immediately begin to apply what he has just learned. Language learning on subject matter material such as ‘salary and pay,’ ‘what to do at the bank,’ and ‘how to make a resume’ can all be taught through ESP and CLT. The main characteristics of ESP are 1)relevance to the learner, 2) focus on the learner’s needs, 3) relation to content, 4) centrality of the appropriate language level in its activities. Many instructors also argue that ESP is more effective and cost efficient than general English courses because it is more focused and narrow. 

TPR is also effective in CLT. Attaching a physical tag to the subjects that are being taught can help students remember what they are learning. Since CLT emphasized communicating in the second language, ESP may be used in instances where students are asked to make a dramatization of what they have learned. Acting out situations is a great way for students to learn in the CLT approach. Students will also learn actions to pair with words that they are learning in the second language. In contrast to ESP, TPR is mostly used in great extent with young learners who are more open to the ‘silliness’ of applying a physical gesture to the English that they are learning.

Difficulties in English Pronunciation for Japanese Learners

For the native Japanese speaker, English poses a couple distinct problems in pronunciation. The first being the basic pronunciation of l and r. As is stated in Nakama 1: ‘the [r] sound in Japanese’ is neither [l] nor [r] in English(p. 12). The Japanese speaker has difficulty separating and pronouncing the sounds of l and r as he or she has a predisposition to pronounce them as a hybridized sound being both l and r.

Another difficulty in English pronunciation for Japanese speakers is the non-phonetic/non-pictographic nature of English. The twp basic Japanese alphabets, the Hiragana and Katakana, are phonetic alphabets, the Hiragana used for Japanese words and particles, while the Katakana is used for foreign words transferred into Japanese. Given these two alphabets, the Japanese are taught a wholly phonetic method of language eventually progressing into the pictographic Kanji. Thus it is natural for a Japanese student to have difficulties with hard consonant sounds and diphthongs as they have had no experience with them in their own tongue. The natural and unconscious reaction for them would be to end each consonant ending with an appropriate vowel sound as per their Kana sound system.

This could also lead to obvious problems in literacy. Apart from the supremely obvious fact that the alphabets are completely different, the functions of each languages alphabet are different. In Japanese, as stated above, have three separate alphabets. However, each has its specific purpose, and altogether, the Kanas are relatively simple structures to form words with as they are phonetic characters. Enter English with only one alphabet but with untold numbers of combinations and sound changes depending on the structures of the words.

Methods for alleviating these problems in the classroom are varied. The most useful would have to be drilling and mouth exercises. Have the class engage in repetition of sound structures until they are able to produce a separate r and l sound as well as cut off words at their proper endings rather than with an elongated vowel ending. Speech games and activities such as listing and naming things that start with r or l or specifically end with hard consonant sounds may be helpful as well. The importance with all class activities is not to alienate anyone and not to make anyone feel as if they are not achieving as much as they should. In this way the class wide exercises are useful.

As for the methods for alleviating the difficulties for literacy, the only true way to manage it is to keep with the subject matter and to devote a good amount of time for the class to learn the alphabet and basic rules before continuing, adding little bits as the class progresses. These methods for improvement usefully apply to any EFL class as, ultimately all students learning English as a foreign language are privy to many of the same difficulties in learning. 

Classroom Diversity

Teaching English, to non-speaking English students, can be a challenge for any instructor, experienced or non-experienced. It would be wonderful if all students were at least of the same ethnic background, however, welcome to the real world of teaching. Questions and research on the background of each and every student would be necessary in order to understand all of these diversities. 

Learning different techniques that could be used to make a TESOL Teacher’s career easier as well as the students´ will be a beneficial tool for the future. ‘Family ties are strong. Families often gather for holidays, birthdays, and weddings.’ (http://Ohiolineosu.edu/hyg-fact) Requesting a calendar of the days the student would not be attending due to a religious holiday would be an excellent way for the teacher to keep track of these very special days. Meeting with the child’s parents would be a good way to build rapport with other family members. Ask, as many questions as possible and show interest in wanting to understand the student’s culture. 

Many village celebrations coincide with seasonal events, such as the harvest. This could be implemented into the curriculum. Each community or village has their own festival that the special days are celebrated with fiestas that the class could participate in. The class could make decorations or do a study on the types of fiestas that each student celebrates, and present them to the class. Holding a fiesta would be a fun and creative way for the students to get a better understanding of a different culture. This will help the students possibly feel more at home, secure, and welcomed.

Many student’s hygiene and eating habits differ from that of a Canadian or American where the health care facilities are superior. ‘To fully understand the impact cultures play in American nutrition, one must study both food and culture.’ (http://Ohiolineosu.edu/hyg-fact) Introduction of food groups could be incorporated into classroom activities such as health class and agriculture, discussing what is grown in different countries. Making sure that there were snacks available in the classroom such as apples, cheese and crackers would be a good way to introduce other food groups to the student. Cooking sessions would be another way a student could be introduced to a new food group and the value this food has with regards to variety and healthy eating habits. This could possibly create a better diversity of nutritional value to the home. Shopping trips could be taken as fieldtrips to local grocery stores where students could price compare and list certain healthy foods. This would be a great life skill tactic for any student learning English as a second or foreign language.

Another ethnic stumbling block could be that it may be possible that a student or students in the classroom may come from a family where the males are the authority figured at home which relates to the male children being dominant in the classroom. In India, for example, ‘Male dominance is always projected high, and everyone accepts it as a sign of a secured home.’ (www.meghdutam.com/articlemp.php) Through role modeling techniques, it could be demonstrated that females are just as important as the males in the class, as well as in society as a whole. Students could role-play different scenarios, as well as, participate in activities or games that could reinforce manners. While teaching demonstrates respect, manners and politeness throughout the day encourages the students to follow suit. Reinforcements could be used sporadically when appropriate manners are being demonstrated to their female peers as well as guests, and amongst other peers in the classroom. 

In Germany, ‘many students reported having a great deal of respect for teachers, whom they feel have a difficult job. Students said that the teachers they respected the most were those who did the best job maintaining discipline and order in the classroom.’ (www.ed.gov/pubs/GermanCaseStudy/chapter4b.html) Therefore, rapport building, respect, and understanding, not only the students in the classroom but the family’s of students, as well as, discipline and being creative in one’s teaching skills, are important tools in any TESOL classroom. These techniques could be beneficial for the teacher to support their students affectively and successfully throughout their TESOL experience and/or their entire teaching career. 

Language Acquisition

While teaching English may appear to be a simple task to us as first language speakers, I am of the opinion that the dynamics behind learning a second language are as complex as the acquisition of the language its self. With this in mind, it is important for us, as teachers, to draw on various sources to ensure that we are aware of the complexities of language acquisition, especially when it comes to children and the learning of English as a second language. Words and being able to express one’s self are an integral part of an individual’s development. Being unable to verbalize what we are thinking and feeling leaves us with a life of shadow and doubt. A leading figure in the acquisition of language is Vygotsky. 

Vygotsky has contributed greatly to the understanding of language acquisition. His statement that "a word is a microcosm of human consciousness" is the basis, I think of what the teaching of English as a second language is all about. His claim that the "speech structures mastered by the child becomes the basic structures of his thinking" further my belief that children should be encouraged to master languages at a very young age in order to create an individual who can think critically. I am of the belief that Vygotsky’s theories relate directly to the study of English as a second language and should be included in any related syllabus as he examines how a child uses language and we, as teachers, can make use of this in our teaching methods. 

In addition, theorists who support Vygotsky’s school of thinking examine how nonverbal thoughts become rational verbal expressions as a result of social interaction. In light of this claim, I think it is imperative that teachers use this to boost the acquisition of English in young learners. This can be done by the use of simple games, for example, that require students to interact with each other as social interaction will increase the ability to acquire new language skills. Vygotsky points out that once a child realizes that objects in their environment have a name, they come to the realization that they are faced with a problem. This problem manifests itself in the fact that they do not know the name of all objects in their environment. A desire to learn and acquire new language skills demands that the child look to the adult in their company to teach them the new words. This is the basis of concept formation. When it comes to second language acquisition, theorists draw on Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development. The basis of this concept is that language is acquired when the individual interacts with their environment.

Of special interest is the fact that when it comes to learning language, the authenticity of the learning environment and the affinity between its participants are essential elements to make the child part of the environment. It has been suggested that these are features rarely found in a conventional classroom, and therefore it should be the effort of us as teachers to ensure that these features are found in our classrooms to facilitate learning English as a second language. It is the interaction with other people that stimulates the learner to acquire a second language. As teachers of English as a second language we need to ensure that we draw on the student’s environment and incorporate it into their learning in order to facilitate an effect learning program. 

By drawing on Vygotsky’s theories regarding language acquisition, we can see that a classroom that is traditional may not be the ideal learning environment. The teacher centered approach may in fact hinder the learning process. By making the class more learner ‘centered, the lesson becomes less structured and more relaxed. This more natural environment makes for a more communicative setting. The idea is to create an atmosphere that is closer to real’ world interaction. 

Examination of this theory has led me to believe that social interaction will definitely enhance language acquisition. The claim that the more natural setting will also increase the chances of students learning faster and easier is one that I support as well. However, I think it is important that we do not forget the vital role that traditional teaching methods have in the teaching of a second language. Repetition, for example, definitely plays a significant role in the teaching of second languages. I think it is imperative that each teacher draw upon the various theories available and adopt individual ideals that are suitable for our needs and those we are comfortable with in order to achieve a class setting that works for us. 

Learning Disability

Dyslexia is a common learning disability that affects millions of people of all ages. It is imperative that someone who is (or has aspirations to be) a teacher, have the ability to understand its causes, symptoms, and function. Dyslexia is a learning disorder which is usually diagnosed in people with no other mental disabilities and who have an otherwise normal mental capacity. It is usually first noticed by parents or teachers. This disability is usually noticed with reading difficulty. It is imperative that a child who is thought to have dyslexia see a medical doctor to make sure there are no other factors impeding the person’s ability to read. Once this is done, an intervention plan must be created. Dyslexia can manifest itself in many ways. For example, a person may have difficulty pronouncing a word, or they may have time distinguishing between different words. 

There has been much research done to determine possible causes of the disability. For example, Helveston 1969; Blika 1982; Keys 1982; and Hiatt 1984 have all found that people with dyslexia do not have any more visual problems than people without the disorder. Therefore, it can be concluded that the disorder is not necessarily related to vision problems. According to another researcher (Mattis, 1978), about 85% of people with dyslexia suffer from some sort of auditory problem. This prevents the people from linking the written form of the word with its spoken equivalent. In such cases, language and speech intervention can help ease the disabilities symptoms for those inflicted with the problem.

Another less frequent cause of dyslexia may be visio-spacial- motor problems. This was researched by Robinson and Swartz in 1973. About 5 % of people studied with dyslexia had visio-spacial-motor problems as the cause. This impedes their ability to scan, perceive, and sequentially organize information presented to them. Unfortunately, people with this cause for their problem do not benefit much from neurological training and other interventions.

As a teacher, it is very important to be able to assess whether or not a student with reading difficulties can be dyslexic. If a teacher overlooks this possibility, it may have a very detrimental effect on the child’s self esteem. There are several ways a teacher can identify possible signs of dyslexia. The first sign is a below average reading score. The second would be that this score is not improved despite the person’s repeated efforts. Another sign is when the problem impacts the person’s life on a regular basis. Finally, a teacher can suspect dyslexia when there are not other visual, auditory, or motor problems involved.

Once a person is diagnosed with dyslexia, there are many steps they can take to learn how to make learning how to read easier. When a teacher is aware of the disability, they can also take action to help their student. For example, a teacher may have a student tape record a session in order to help the student play back and focus more when doing homework. Flash cards can also be created, and the teacher can take the time to help the student learn how to pronounce certain words that may be similar. 

In conclusion, the biggest problem with dyslexia is admitting to it. Once the problem has been identified, there are many steps that can be taken to help the person. It is especially important that teachers support students with the problem in order to help their self-esteem stay afloat. Teachers can also educate other students on how the disability affects people so that they do not attempt to ‘tease’ or ‘insult’ the students with the disability. 

A matter of style

To the young ESL teacher, seven-year-old Bobby seems inattentive and unmotivated. He cannot sit at his desk for five seconds and absolutely refuses to follow the logical, sequential steps she lays out for each assignment. She has tried lots of ideas to make her lessons more interesting, however, what she does not realize is that Bobby is an abstract random learner in a concrete sequential classroom. In other words, the teacher does not understand the way that Bobby takes in and processes information. There are at least four major learning styles and a number of other components that influence human learning ability. It follows then, that if teachers can understand and accommodate for a variety of learning styles, they can increase productivity of learning time.

Although a number of researchers have made useful proposals concerning the components of learning styles, two key factors for understanding the learning process include methods of perceiving information and methods of processing information. One learning styles model proposed by Dr. Anthony F Gregore and further extrapolated by the founder of Learning Styles Unlimited, Cynthia Ulrich Tobias, claims that people perceive new information either concretely or abstractly and process it either sequentially or randomly. Concrete perception concerns itself with literal understanding of tactile evidence, while abstract perception involves understanding based on internal intuitive and imaginative reasoning (Tobias 14-15). However people receive the information, some people will process it step by step in a logical, or sequential manner until they reach the goal, while others collect information in random clumps until they gather the big picture (Tobias 16). These methods of receiving and processing information lend to four combinations of learning styles. Concrete sequential learners tend to work systematically through ‘literal interpretations,’ while abstract sequential learners tend to ‘work through issues thoroughly’ using ‘well-researched information’ (Tobias 2). Abstract random learners like ‘broad principles’ and ‘personalized learning’, and concrete random learners prefer ‘using insight and instinct to solve problems’ (Tobias 23). A mismatch between teacher and student learning styles often leads to unproductive learning time.

Certainly, though, teachers cannot develop a separate lesson plan tailored to each student. Well-respected educational psychologists Linda Silverman and Richard M. Felder observe in their dimensions of learning proposal that they know of 32 (25) combinations of learning styles, and it would be daunting to accommodate them all (675). However, by balancing teaching strategies to match the four general learning styles outlined above as well as all of the audio, visual, and kinesthetic modalities, a teacher can help the majority of students understand the lesson, commit it to memory, and be able to use it. Additionally, as Student Affairs Chancellor Charles C. Schroeder observed in the new students flooding to the University of Missouri-Columbia, the demographics of certain courses of study tend toward certain learning styles as researched using the Myers-Brings Type Indicator (6-10). For example, engineering students tend to be more concrete (Felder and Silverman 676), while language students tend to be more abstract (Felder and Henrinques 22). In required courses, however, student learning-styles tend to run 60 percent concrete to 40 percent abstract thinkers (Schroeder 7). By offering activities that appeal to each of the four general learning styles and observing what percent of the class succeed in each activity, a teacher can ascertain the classroom learning style demographics and balance lesson plans accordingly to maximize learning effectiveness.

Some additional suggestions for balancing learning styles in the classroom as provided by Felder in his paper ‘Learning and Teaching Styles in Foreign and Second Language Education include the following: ‘Motivate leaning . . . in situations to which the students can relate in terms of their personal and career experiences . . .’ or ‘ Balance structured teaching approaches that emphasize formal training with more open-ended unstructured activities that emphasis conversation and cultural contexts of the target language’ (28). Another suggestion to better understand learning styles would be to study additional material such as Dr. Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory or Herman Witkin’s analytic or global theory. In the long run, whatever information on learning styles a teacher utilizes enhances the students’ ability to learn, which is, after all, the point of teaching. 

Spaced repetition and lesson planning. Increasing the lesson's effectiveness

‘Practice makes perfect’ is a proverb that most of us will know but which I find incomplete. Take for example a father that wants to teach one of his children to ride a bicycle. If he decides to take one day a year to practice, the kid will probably never learn. What about twice a year or once every month? How fast will the child learn to keep equilibrium, steer the handle and brake when needed if the father decides to take one hour every day for the coming month? Only by repeating the same exercise over and over again will the child become accustomed to the skills needed to ride a bicycle. Who knows, in the future he might even use the phrase, ‘it’s like riding a bicycle, you never forget’.

The same theory applies to learning a language, and I believe that the lesson planning techniques existing today might stand to profit from an increased awareness directed towards this matter. Before continuing I would like to point out that there is a fine line between the lesson-planning structure and its actual implementation. Scholastic curriculums have been thought through by pedagogic specialists and I am not qualified to criticize their structure, it’s the implementation part that constitutes the content of this research.

In an article containing the research background of P.A. Wozniak’s (Economics of learning, Wroclaw 1995) studies of the working of the human memory, it is written that there is a correlation between the different spacing of repetitions in time and their affects on the subject’s memory strength. In other words, there are different results to different spacing repetitions in time. The frequency of the repetition only becomes relevant when applied to a certain frame of time. Like in the example above, one can repeat something thirty times in a time frame of thirty years or thirty days, the effectiveness of the results is logically different.

These outcomes paired with the natural workings of the human memory form a trade-off situation wherein the teacher and the lesson plan have to adapt to one another.

The teacher must be aware of the gradual degradation of the knowledge passed on to the students in the recent past and figure out at which point in time to introduce its repetition. This is a careful balance act in which the teacher has to take into account the continuation along the path of the pre-set curriculum without losing sight of the key moment in which this previously transferred knowledge loses its memory trace. 

Memory trace stands for the key word, phrase or notion that enables an individual to recall and access that part of the memory wherein the knowledge pertaining to it is stored. For example one could say, ‘it’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind? and instantly the memory reproduces images, Neil Armstrong, NASA and what not. The structure and content of the year’s lesson plan do not necessarily have to be altered to accommodate the recalling of the increasing number of memory traces. The theory says that after a number of repetitions the memory traces will move from the short, frivolous part of the memory, to the long-term memory and thereby ensure its preservation. Depending on the size and complexity of the data that has to be recalled, the number of repetitions might alter, but not the time needed to go over them again. Some fragments of our memory are linked by different memory traces that have to be called upon in a specific sequence. This might prove to be challenging when the topics are also part of other areas in the study of the language. To conclude, I think that a system of subject-relevant memory-trace spaced repetitions will ensure the full assimilation of the topics covered. If applied with a certain frequency it might prove to increase the effectiveness of the lessons. The student’s confidence level should increase naturally due to the constant testing and recalling of the knowledge. 

To my knowledge this has not been attempted so far but I believe that it might generate surprising results.